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Understanding the Vineyard Microbiome and Soil Health

By
Deborah Neher | Plant and Soil Science Professor, University of Vermont, Craig Macmillan and Whitney Brownie | Vineyard Team
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Interactions in the rhizosphere. Plants influence their rhizosphere microbiome through exudation of compounds that stimulate (green arrows) or inhibit (red blocked arrows). Most microbes affect neither the plant nor the pathogen because they occupy different ecological niches (commensal microbes) but may affect every other organism to somewhat through a complex network of interactions.

“Soil health” and “healthy soils” have become popular topics in recent years as evidenced by the increased number of government programs and commercial products aimed at improving soil health. The desirable properties of healthy soils are efficiency and efficacy of nutrient cycling, capacity to hold and release plant-available water, an environment conducive to root growth, supportive of beneficial soil organisms and improved resilience of the vine to stress from pests, diseases, drought and/or heat.

Characteristics of a healthy soil are those that promote healthy plant growth:
• A living matrix of plant residues, plant roots, animal residue and microorganisms.
• Porous, with a range of pore sizes that allow a balance between water and air in the soil and space for a complex network of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.), microarthropods and roots to establish.
• Chemically balanced to allow for nutrient cycling and conducive to the environmental needs of different types of soil organisms in the soil food web and vine roots.
• High in organic matter, which adds nutrients and microbes to soil; those microbes support essential ecological functions of soil, including recycling of nutrients.

Different vineyards and different soil types support different soil ecosystems. What would be considered healthy for sandy soils may not be the same as what is considered healthy for clay soils. Assessing whether the functioning of the soil ecosystem is optimal for any given crop/soil combination is difficult as comparisons between combinations are not necessarily valid.

Roles of Microorganisms in Soil Health
Healthy functioning of soil is promoted by complex networks of microorganisms and their grazers, such as beneficial microarthropods. The microbiome of a soil is composed of a host of organisms, including but not limited to bacteria, fungi, protists, nematodes, earthworms and microarthropods. Within these groups, some species can be beneficial, others pathogenic. This can be true even within a genus. For example, the bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens is beneficial, while Pseudomonas syringae is a pathogen.

Soil microbes play an important role in nutrient cycling in the soil. Decomposers break down organic matter, making it available as an energy and nutrient source for other organisms. Macronutrients such as potassium and phosphorus, which are often immobile in soil, are made available to the vine by some soil microbes.

Soil microorganisms improve soil structure. Bacteria play an important role in aggregate structure and stability. They produce sugars that hold the mineral parts of the soil together. Fungal hyphae weave soils together as do plant roots. Collectively, soil minerals, roots, bacteria and fungi comprise soil aggregates.

Some microbes are biological control agents that antagonize or compete with deleterious microorganisms. For example, predatory nematodes are beneficial. As fungi and bacteria, respectively, Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus subtilis are other examples of well-known biocontrol agents.

Plant growth-promoting bacteria produce chemicals that stimulate vine growth, and amoeba protists stimulate lateral root formation by producing a plant hormone mimic. A vine might react to these compounds like a plant hormone. Other types of bacteria convert nutrients into forms more available to the vine.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) live in the soil and on vine roots in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The plant delivers photosynthates to the fungi for energy, and the fungi provide additional water and nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen to the plant. AMF have structures called hyphae that extend great distances through the soil. Hyphae are essentially long tubes that can transport water to vines from areas beyond the root zone. This helps the vine cope with drought. Hyphae also play a role in soil structure.

Soil rich in organic matter supports a diverse microbial ecosystem that helps improve structure, nutrient cycling and plant resilience. Healthy vineyard soils often contain visible root systems and fungal hyphae interwoven through soil aggregates (photo courtesy Katie Bruce, Niner Wine Estates.)

Soil Microbial Consortia
Soil microbial species do not function in isolation. The survival and success of any one type of soil microorganism is dependent on the presence and activity of many other collaborating microbes. One type of organism provides the resources another type of organism needs or changes the environment such as to favor a different type of organism. Collaborations of multiple species of bacteria and fungi are referred to as a soil microbial consortium. Applying compost to the field can be a method for delivering or manipulating these synergistic soil microbial consortia.

Like other food webs found in nature, soil food webs are composed of multiple trophic levels or positions in the food chain. Communities of organisms perform important ecological functions, such as contributing to plant productivity, decomposing dead and decaying matter, and returning energy and nutrients for use by plants. Numbers decrease as you move from bottom to top, but the biomass per individual increases from bottom to top. Soil food chains may be more complex than aboveground food chains, as they tend to exhibit a greater incidence of omnivory that are capable of foraging on multiple trophic groups.

The three basic pathways that energy is moved between and within trophic levels are roots, bacteria and fungi. Pathogenic fungi, bacteria and nematodes and their consumers comprise the root pathway. The bacterial pathway is made up of bacteria that feed on dead plant material (saprophytic), those that cause diseases in plants (pathogenic), plus the organisms that feed on them, such as protists and bacterial-feeding nematodes.

Fungi found in the fungal pathway include species that are saprophytic, pathogenic and/or mycorrhizal. This pathway also includes consumers of these fungi. Some mesofauna organisms occupy other trophic levels as secondary, tertiary and quaternary predators. Such organisms include protists, nematodes, mites, fly larvae, centipedes, spiders and beetles. The conversion and movement of energy and nutrients around the soil ecosystem is what allows the functions of decomposition, mineralization and soil aggregate formation to occur.

Soils with collaborative suites of microbial species are likely to be more resilient than single species, which are more vulnerable to disease or stress. Species within these communities turn “on” and “off” according to different environmental signals, such that when one classification of soil organisms declines, another one can fill that same role or function. An analogy is an orchestra that features different instruments at different times in a performance. Unfortunately, naming the species composing different soil consortia and their ecological functions in soil health is still in its infancy.

Monitoring Soil Microbiome and Soil Health
Most methods for identifying and quantifying soil microbes are indirect. The methods include measures based on soil aggregation, biomass (estimated by a phospholipid fatty acid profile or counting cells under the microscope), biological activity such as production of extracellular enzymes, and identification by matching DNA fingerprints found in a soil sample to the known genomes of species of bacteria, fungi, protists or nematodes.
Aggregate stability can be a good measure of soil health because it reflects both physical structure and biology. The bulk density of soil is not a direct measure of soil aggregates but is related. A qualitative way of judging aggregate stability is to take a small sample of soil and drip water on it. If the soil crumbles and falls apart, that is an indication of poor aggregation. If the sample absorbs the water, that is a sign the soil has good structure and ability to hold water. Even if all the species of microorganisms in a soil are unknown, measuring aggregates comprised of bacteria and fungi is useful for monitoring changes through time.

Knowing the functional activity of fungi and bacteria provides a general description of the soil ecosystem and soil health. Functional activity can be measured as enzymes metabolizing specific substrates in soils containing cellulose, amino acids or phosphorus, for example.

Monitoring these and other variables can inform decisions about ground cover, cultivation and fertilization toward the goals of reducing compaction, improving soil aggregate stability, increased water infiltration and disease suppression. The limitation of this type of description is that it does not identify or differentiate what genera or species of these organisms are present. The diversity and complexity of the soil microbiome is crucial to the healthy function of the soil.

Techniques like aggregate stability tests and microbial enzyme analysis help monitor soil health and guide management practices (photo courtesy Katie Bruce, Niner Wine Estates.)

Biological Indicators
Soil ecology is the study of the complex interactions between the environment and myriad soil biota. No single measure can capture all the variables that contribute to soil health, but choosing measurements that complement each other can help. Interpreting simple measurements of broad groups like fungi or bacteria is difficult because it does not distinguish pathogens from beneficials.

The biomass of bacteria and fungi can be estimated. Phospholipid fatty acid profiles or cell counts are two methods for estimating microbial biomass. Use of viability stains can distinguish active from dormant organisms. Measuring the ratios between fungi and bacteria can be useful as well because it reflects disturbance. A well-functioning vineyard soil will have a higher ratio of fungi to bacteria, which is promoted by reducing or eliminating tillage to keep vegetation with living roots in the system and avoiding the disruption of the physical characteristics of the microbial habitat.

Measuring respiration in the soil provides a picture of how much life there is in the soil, but it is hard to interpret because it combines respiration of roots, microorganisms and their consumers. Although these measures provide rough estimates of biomass, they do not reflect “who” is there.

Soil organic matter is composed of both living and decaying material. The active or living portion of total soil organic matter can be quantified using a technique based on changes in the color of a potassium permanganate solution mixed with soil. Measurements using this method correlate positively with soil biological activity and are sensitive to management practices.

Current research is being performed to identify sentinel species of microorganisms. If there are genetic markers for these organisms, then identifying specific soil microorganisms is possible. For example, DNA can be extracted from soil. Strands of DNA are replicated using polymerase chain reaction techniques. Those strands are compared to the known genomes of different organisms. The longer the strand of DNA replicated determines how specific identification can be. As the genomes of more soil microbes are mapped, identifying the composition of the microbial community in the soil will become more accurate and useful. This research is still in its infancy.

Encouraging and Conserving Soil Microbial Ecosystem
Diversity of plants in the vineyard increases the diversity of the soil microbial community. This can be achieved with cover crops and grazing. Planting a blend of multiple species of grasses and legumes accomplishes this. Soil covered with vegetation is typically healthier than bare ground.

Applying compost is an excellent way of introducing more carbon into the soil. Compost can potentially inoculate soil with beneficial microbes, provide nitrogen in organic forms and increase soil organic matter overall. The carbon and nitrogen provided by compost feeds both vines and soil microorganisms.

Reducing tillage as much as possible is advisable. Excessive tillage disrupts the soil food web. The mechanical action of tilling severs earthworms and breaks up soil aggregates, which are habitat for beneficial soil bacteria. Hyphae of AMF are torn. Soil organic matter is lost to the atmosphere from tillage, reducing the food source and habitat of many soil microbes. Microorganisms are redistributed in space, separating them from their habitats and food sources such as predators from prey, decomposers from material that needs decomposing, and beneficial relationships between microbes and roots. Organisms surviving a tillage event will need to repopulate and recreate communities within the soil.

Conserving and encouraging the microbial community of the soil is crucial to improving and maintaining soil health. Differences between soil types and the necessities of vineyard management make comparisons difficult. Developing a soil health management program for any vineyard takes time, dedication and the willingness to experiment. Appreciating the role of the soil microbial ecosystems will contribute to the success of a grower’s efforts in improving and maintaining a healthy soil.

Orchard Floor Management to Promote Mycorrhizal Fungi and Carbon Cycling

By
Anna Rodriguez-Paiatsyka | Research Associate and Laboratory Manager, Grimm Family Center for Organic Production and Research, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Yamina Pressler | Assistant Professor, Dept. of Natural Resources Management and Environmental Sciences, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Matt Grieshop | Director, The Grimm Family Center for Organic Production and Research at Cal Poly and Charlotte Decock | Associate Professor, Dept. of Natural Resources Management and Environmental Sciences, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
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Courtesy A. Rodriguez-Paiatsyka

Plant-associated arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) participate in soil carbon storage, improve soil aggregation and promote plant health and crop yield. Like other perennial crops, citrus trees create associations with AMF (Wu and Srivastava 2017; Xi et al. 2022) which have been shown to improve crop nutrition (Wu and Zou 2009), enhance tolerance against abiotic stressors like drought (Wu et al. 2019) and induce better root development (Wu et al. 2012). Due to multiple benefits of AMF to soil and plant health, AMF has gained much attention, leading to a rapidly expanding market in mycorrhizal biostimulants focused on improving crop yield and root development of horticultural crops (Igiehon and Babalola 2017; Chen et al. 2018).

In agricultural systems, abundance of AMF can be negatively impacted by intensive cultivation, leading to a decrease of AMF spores and infective mycelium; thus, native AMF are often promoted by cover cropping and reducing soil disturbance (Bowles et al. 2016b). AMF inoculation can be successful in soils with limited native AMF, poor soil health and low productivity (Verbruggen et al. 2012; Rog et al. 2025). Our study aimed to investigate the effects of inoculated and uninoculated triticale cover crops on soil health and carbon storage in the alley and tree rows of a commercial lemon orchard in the Californian Central Coast region.

Experimental Design and Soil Analysis
The study was conducted at a commercial citrus orchard located in San Luis Obispo County between fall 2019 and spring 2023. The testing site was a 6-acre block planted with Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.  ‘Lisbon Lemon’. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with three blocks and three treatments in each block. Treatments included a control (bare fallow with no herbicide application), a cereal cover crop (Triticale (Secale x Triticum L.) drill-seeded at 110 pounds per acre and a cereal cover crop inoculated with AMF (110 pounds per acre inoculated with commercial AMF inoculum Rhizophagus intraradices, 300 propagules per gram at 10 pounds per acre). Cover crops were seeded in alley rows every growing season from 2020 to 2022. The timing of cover crop seeding and AMF inoculation was selected in accordance with winter rain events. In winter 2022-23, early rain promoted germination of cover crop seed from previous years and no AMF inoculation was applied. Cover crops were completely rain-fed, with no supplemental irrigation during dry months, and were mowed in June each year.

In the first three years, soil samples were collected between trees from the tree rows and from the center of the alley row at 0 to 6 inches and 6 to 18 inches depth. In year four, soil sampling was adjusted to better understand the link between the position on the orchard floor, microbial community structure and soil carbon dynamics as affected by the cover crops and AMF inoculation. Composite soil samples were taken from each plot at four functional locations defined as follows: between two trees on a berm (Location 1), the transition section where the berm ends but no cover crop is grown (Location 2), the cover crop edge (weeds in control plots) (Location 3) and the center of the alley row (Location 4; Fig. 1). Fresh soil subsamples were sent to Ward Laboratories for soil microbial community structure analysis using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) and neutral lipid fatty acid (NLFA). Soil samples were sieved, air dried and analyzed for total soil C (%), permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC) and mineralizable carbon (Min C). Min C, also referred to as soil respiration, is an indicator of microbial activity, while POXC, also referred to as active carbon, can be considered a microbial food source. Both Min C and POXC are commonly used as indicators of soil health (Moebius-Clune et al. 2016; Norris et al. 2020).

Figure 1. Modified sampling scheme across the orchard floor. Location 1 was between two trees on a berm, Location 2 was in the transition section where the berm ends but no cover crop is grown, Location 3 was in the cover crop edge (weeds in control plots) and Location 4 was in the center of the alley row.

The Overlooked Role of Weeds and Native AMF.
After two years of treatment implementation, there was no effect of cover crops or inoculation with AMF on the total soil C, POXC and Min C in the tree or alley row (data is not shown). Likewise, there was no treatment effect on total soil C, POXC and Min C at any of the four locations across the orchard floor after three years of treatment implementation (Table 1). Our control treatment had weeds (predominantly Malva and some filarees during soil sampling) which added C sources to soil, likely causing the lack of a significant difference between cover crop treatments and control.

Our PLFA and NLFA microbial biomass data showed no significant persistent inoculation impact on the microbial community compared to the non-inoculated cover crop and the weedy control treatment plots after three years of treatment implementation. We did not observe any differences in microbial biomass between the cereal cover crop and the weedy control treatment, indicating weeds supported the microbial community similarly as the cereal cover crop (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Mean abundance of AMF biomass NLFA (ng/g soil) and total bacteria biomass PLFA (ng/g soil) for the control, a cereal cover crop (CC) and a cereal cover crop inoculated with mycorrhizae (CC M) treatments in four functional locations: 1) on top of the berm next to the tree, 2) in the fallow area next to the berm, 3) on the fringe of the cover crop area and 4) in the middle of the cover crop area) in the 0- to 6-inch-depth increment. Error bars represent standard error (n=3). Different uppercase letters indicate significant differences between locations.

The lack of effect of the inoculated cover crop compared to the non-inoculated cover crop and control treatment on soil C metrics and microbial community structure in our study may be attributed to native AMF species forming associations with plants growing in the alley row and leading to similar results as those observed in the inoculated plots (Wilson et al. 2009; Bowles et al. 2016a,b; Agnihotri et al. 2021; Lin et al. 2023). These findings suggest native AMF can be successfully promoted in the alley rows by weeds or a cover crop and may provide a more effective strategy than inoculation in perennial citrus orchards. Therefore, AMF inoculations may not add value in soil with existing plant cover and low soil disturbance.

Cover Crop Effects Extend Beyond Area Directly Underneath Plant Cover
In contrast to treatment comparisons, soil C indicators showed greater values in the alley rows compared to the tree row (Table 1). In the topsoil, the cereal cover crop, weedy control and repeated additions of tree prunings in the alley row supported more microbial biomass, including AMF (Fig. 2), and had higher C storage potential compared to the tree row that had less plant matter input in the top soil and potentially experienced C loss due to pulses of C mineralization during dry-wet cycles associated with frequent irrigation (Lundquist et al. 1999; Denef et al. 2001; Lopez-Sangil et al. 2018). The location effects in this orchard trial suggest different managent of trees and alley rows leads to soil heterogeneity across the orchard floor.

Table 1. Average total soil carbon (%) concentrations, average permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC, mg C kg soil-1), average mineralizable carbon concentrations (Min C, mg C kg soil-1 day-1) and the respective standard errors of the mean (n = 3) for the control, cereal cover crop (CC) and cereal cover crop inoculated with mycorrhizae (CC-M) treatments in four functional locations: 1) on top of the berm next to the tree, 2) in the fallow area next to the berm, 3) on the fringe of the cover crop area and 4) in the middle of the cover crop area) in the 0- to 6-inch-depth increment. Different uppercase letters indicate significant differences between locations within the same carbon measurement.

The management in the alley rows more positively impacted soil C cycling indicators and soil health with some carry-over from the cover cropped alley rows into adjacent areas. More specifically, total C and POXC concentrations declined from the center of the alley rows to the area next to the citrus trees (Table 1). In addition, total C and POXC were greater in location 2, which represents the plant-free area adjacent to the cover crop and impacted by wheel traffic, compared to location 1 immediately next to the citrus tree. An orchard floor gradient assessment from the center of the cover cropped row toward the tree row with bare soil showed a potential carryover effect from the cover crop row into the fallow area between the trees and the edge of the cover crop. Citrus trees may potentially receive more nutrients outside of the berm by extending lateral roots into alley rows and by making associations with AMF that have extensive hyphal networks. Therefore, lemon trees may benefit from soil improvements from cover crops grown in the alley row.

Mycorrhizae Affect Carbon Cycling through Recruitment of Bacteria
We used correlation analysis to evaluate the relationships among microbial groups and C cycling indicators (Table 2). In our dataset, AMF and saprophytic fungal biomass were positively correlated with total bacterial biomass (Table 2), which supports previous findings on the cooccurrence of AMF or saprotrophic fungi with bacteria in soil niches (Yuan et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2022). We also observed no correlation between NLFA biomass of AMF and saprotrophic fungi. These findings suggest both AMF and saprotrophic fungi are able to recruit bacteria but the two groups of fungi occupy different soil niches. Correlation assessment of linking AMF NLFA biomass with soil C indicators showed no direct significant impact of AMF on soil C storage. In contrast to AMF, bacterial biomass was significantly correlated with all soil C indicators supporting studies where bacterial community was a major contributor to soil organic C accumulation (Zhang et al. 2020; Guo et al. 2021; Hu et al. 2023). As such, our findings suggest AMF may have an indirect influence on soil C dynamics by promoting bacterial biomass. Therefore, management practices that promote AMF, such as cover crops and reduced soil disturbance, help build soil organic matter and store carbon.

Table 2. Pearson’s correlations between AMF biomass NLFA, saprophytic fungi NLFA, total bacteria biomass PLFA, Min C (mg C kg soil-1 day-1), POXC (mg C kg soil-1) and total soil carbon (%).

References
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Bowles, T.M., F.H. Barrios-Masias, E.A. Carlisle, T.R. Cavagnaro, and L.E. Jackson. 2016a. Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizae on tomato yield, nutrient uptake, water relations, and soil carbon dynamics under deficit irrigation in field conditions. Science of The Total Environment 566–567: 1223–1234. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.178.

Bowles, T.M., L.E. Jackson, M. Loeher, and T.R. Cavagnaro. 2016b. Ecological intensification and arbuscular mycorrhizas: a meta-analysis of tillage and cover crop effects. Journal of Applied Ecology 54(6): 1785–1793. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12815.

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New Data Illustrates the Current State of Echinochloa spp. Herbicide Resistance in California Rice

By
Alex Ceseski | Ph.D., CCA, PCA, ARC Agricultural Research and Consulting LLC, Rohith Vulchi | Postdoctoral Scholar, Dept. of Plant Science, UC Davis, Taiyu Guan | UCCE Assistant Specialist, Sutter-Yuba Counties, Troy Clark | UCCE Rice Junior Specialist, Sutter-Yuba Counties and Whitney Brim-DeForest
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Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli), one of the most competitive and destructive weeds in California rice production, has shown widespread insensitivity to multiple herbicides, posing significant challenges for growers managing resistance across the Sacramento Valley (photo by Luis Espino, UCCE Rice Advisor.)

California rice growers are well acquainted with reduced herbicide efficacy, whether experienced on their own or witnessed on a neighbor’s acres. Weed populations tolerant or resistant to herbicides have been spreading throughout the California rice region since at least the early 1990s. The most competitive and destructive weeds in California rice production are undoubtedly the Echinochloa complex species, notably barnyardgrass (E. crus-galli), early watergrass (E. oryzoides) and late watergrass (E. oryzicola). Populations of each of these species found to be insensitive to available herbicides for grass management are found throughout the Sacramento Valley, where the majority of California rice is grown.

Fortunately, newer herbicide active ingredients are starting to hit the market, but due to cost and supply constraints, these new weed management tools will take some time to become widely adopted. In the meantime, it is important for all stakeholders to have up-to-date information about the current state of herbicide resistance in one of the most economically important crops in the state.

Greenhouse Herbicide Screenings
UCCE researchers conducted a pair of greenhouse screenings of 63 samples of suspected resistant Echinochloa species over fall and winter 2021 at the Rice Experiment Station in Biggs, Calif. Seed samples of local weed populations suspected to be resistant to at least one herbicide mode of action (MOA) had been collected from grower fields in fall 2020 following UC ANR recommendations. Samples included barnyardgrass, late watergrass and coast cockspur (E. walteri) (Table 1). Coast cockspur is a newer weed species to California rice growers, although it is common in rice in the mid-South and is lately being found throughout the Sacramento Valley. Seedlings of each sampled population were subjected to a battery of common foliar (63 populations) and granular (62 populations) herbicide formulations (Table 2) in growing conditions simulating an early summer rice field.

Table 1. Echinochloa spp. samples collected from different rice counties of Northern California in 2020.
Table 2. Herbicides and rates used for the 2021 watergrass screening. Rates are standard field rates for California rice growers with susceptible Echinochloa spp. biotypes.

Granular Herbicides
Species response to granular herbicides varied between fall and winter applications. Almost every barnyardgrass, late watergrass and coast cockspur sample (Table 3) was insensitive to Bolero® (thiobencarb), Butte® (benzobicyclon + halosulfuron), Cerano® (clomazone) and Granite GR® (penoxsulam) when applied in fall. However, overall survival rates decreased in the winter application. Notably, seedlings of all species had greater than 70% survival from the fall Cerano (clomazone) application, yet no more than 20% survival in winter. Barnyardgrass survival rates in particular appeared to be affected the greatest by the different application times, especially from Cerano and Bolero. Cooler greenhouse conditions and slower plant growth during the winter trial may have allowed the herbicides’ active ingredients more time to enter and translocate through the plants. For instance, Butte efficacy is dependent on maintaining a constant and deep flood during the water-holding period (see product label for particulars). In addition, slower plant metabolism in the cooler winter would likely have reduced the rate of herbicide breakdown in the plants. This is an important consideration when dealing with suspected herbicide resistance since increased metabolic breakdown is one of the main mechanisms of herbicide tolerance in both weeds and crops.

Table 3. Proportion of Echinochloa spp. samples suspected resistant to granular formulated herbicides across rice-growing counties in California in comparison to a susceptible late watergrass (Echinochloa phyllopogon) population.
Table 4. County-level proportions of Echinochloa spp. samples suspected resistant to granular and foliar herbicides in comparison to a susceptible late watergrass population.

Foliar Herbicides
Species response to foliar herbicides was also variable between the fall and winter trials (Table 3). Barnyardgrass, late watergrass and coast cockspur samples were more tolerant to Clincher CA (cyhalofop) applied under the cooler winter greenhouse conditions, yet more sensitive to Regiment CA (bispyribac-sodium) during the same period.

Survival rates of all species to both SuperWham® (propanil) applications were low to moderate except for late watergrass, which had an 80% survival rate in fall but only 30% in winter. Differences in greenhouse air and water temperatures between fall and winter were probably at play for the foliar herbicides. Regiment and SuperWham are both contact herbicides (although with different MOAs) and hotter temperatures can reduce contact herbicide uptake in the field through mechanisms such as rapid drying of the herbicidal solution, water-based in both cases or increased plant cuticle thickness. In addition, plant metabolic processes that can deactivate herbicides would be expected to act faster in warmer conditions. Nevertheless, SuperWham was relatively effective at killing most of the sample weed populations during both trials which ought to be reassuring to growers who still rely on SuperWham as their cleanup herbicide. On the other hand, Clincher CA is a solvent-based formulation that enters the plant and translocates rapidly, and higher temperatures may aid its activity as plants try to grow with rapidly disrupted cellular membranes. However, too-high application temperatures can result in Clincher CA volatilization. As always, consult the product label for application guidelines.

Multiple and Cross-Resistance
Troublingly, most samples showed insensitivity to at least one herbicide MOA regardless of species or application time. Up to 80% of barnyardgrass and coast cockspur samples survived applications of all four granular herbicides and up to 80% of late watergrass samples were insensitive to all three foliar formulations. Given the relative differences in product efficacy between fall and winter applications, the fact that there’s potential for that many products failing in the field should be sobering. In addition, the observed multiple-MOA survival to granular herbicides was uniform across sampling counties (Table 5) indicating that the spread of those resistance mechanisms has already happened. The observed incidence of multiple resistance to foliar formulations was far more variable across sampling counties although Regiment CA was the least effective overall. The prevalence of ALS inhibitor resistance in weeds of California rice has long been established, so the high rates of observed insensitivity to both Granite GR and Regiment should not be surprising.

Table 5. Proportion of samples showing different resistance profile categories collected from California rice fields in 2020.

Implications for Advisors and Growers
The theme of any report on herbicide resistance testing should begin and end with stewardship. This goes beyond simply rotating herbicides within a MOA or rotating MOAs; this should include the pesticide-use version of the 4Rs: the Right Product at the Right Rate with the Right Method at the Right Time. Herbicide efficacy is dependent on so much more than whether a weed has some biologic mechanism to block or detoxify the poison, and it is important to be aware of the interplay between formulation, mixing and application method, soil characteristics, temperature and humidity in affecting a given product’s ability to control weeds.

As a PCA, it is important to be proactive whenever possible in mitigating factors under your control that may inhibit herbicide effectiveness. Luckily, a lot of this information is already on the product labels; however, UCCE researchers are constantly adding to the available knowledge. Knowing that Cerano and Butte may be more effective in cooler temperatures, for example, may influence when to act during an application window. The results shown here indicate a high level of watergrass species resistance to most of the available grass herbicides in California rice. Although new herbicide MOAs are starting to hit the market, it is still important to avoid repeating the same errors of yesteryear. Growers rely on PCAs for timely and sage recommendations and therefore we must be the front line of stewardship for herbicides and other pesticides. Through research like the aforementioned study, we’ve learned to avoid overreliance on new products to the point that resistance also develops. Working together we can help ensure the continued efficacy of new and existing pesticides into the future.

Any questions about this study can be directed to Whitney Brim-DeForest, UCCE rice and wild rice advisor in Sutter-Yuba, Placer and Sacramento counties, at wbrimdeforest@ucanr.edu.

References
Vulchi R, Guan T, Clark T and Brim-DeForest W (2024) Echinochloa spp response to preemergence and postemergence herbicides in California rice (Oryza sativa L.). Front. Agron. 6:1349008. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2024.1349008

 

Artificial Intelligence in Ag Consulting: A Game-Changer, Not a People-Replacer

By
Taylor Chalstrom | Editor
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Generative artificial intelligence is becoming a valuable tool in agricultural consulting, helping consultants streamline research, analyze data and enhance decision-making.

There’s a powerful shift underway in agricultural consulting. The rise of generative artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly changing how PCAs and CCAs conduct research, analyze data and support farm management. Russell Morgan, certified agricultural consultant with the American Society of Agricultural Consultants and owner of Morgan Ag Consulting Services, shared how AI is transforming his work and the wider industry.

“This is a burgeoning platform. It is ubiquitous, not just in ag production and consulting, but everywhere, engineering, all over,” Morgan said. “Because it’s such a fast-advancing platform. I saw that it will have applications both in my business and in production ag and the ag consulting industry, which is very diverse. Not just what I do, but agronomists, nutritionists and all types of ag tech folks.”

Morgan first began using AI for its ability to handle extensive research quickly. “My work was in research, and it can perform a tremendous amount of research that would take me days or weeks. It can do it in 15 minutes,” he said, noting Google’s Gemini AI as his preferred platform.

Morgan emphasized the importance of reviewing AI results critically. “I found you always have to watch for and use your, what I call, ‘critical discretion,’ which is above critical thinking. Look and say, ‘Wait a minute, that doesn’t look right.’”

He recalled a recent experience where he challenged Gemini’s results. “It was actually a debate with Gemini, and that was pretty cool. Because I hadn’t done that before. But finally, after some interaction back and forth, it recognized that it made a mistake and essentially apologized and corrected the mistake, which was really fascinating to me.”

Improving Efficiency, Not Replacing Experts

Morgan also noted how AI boosts efficiency in writing and reporting. “Old-school folks would say the worst thing that a writer can see is a blank piece of paper. The same thing with a blank screen or blank Word document. But if you can have Gemini or AI, ChatGPT or whatever, provide something, a base to start with, it really ramps up your efficiency. And that’s what I have found.”

He also sees AI’s value across ag consulting fields. “There are a number of areas where I can use it to leverage knowledge in my consultancy, but I also have read where, let’s just say, agronomists have found fascinating uses in agronomy. Of course, you never take the agronomist out of the picture, but some of the simpler things it can replicate the agronomist’s expertise. They can leverage their time and value tremendously by utilizing the tool.”

Three Pillars of AI Use

Morgan described his approach to AI through three key pillars:

  • Agricultural Intelligence: “All the data, the analytical data that an agronomist would use, can be built into and replicated by AI.”
  • Artificial Intelligence: “Machine learning. It learned from that interaction, so it will not make that same mistake again.”
  • Actionable Intelligence: “I take a lot of data, compile it, distill it and present it in an actionable way so the management team can look at it and make a decision.”

Ethics and Transparency

Morgan stressed AI should be used responsibly. “You don’t want to present somebody else’s work as your own.”

He referenced the American Society of Agricultural Consultants’ code of ethics. “If I created a report or business plan, let’s say, and I totally relied on Gemini or ChatGPT or whatever without modifying it and presented that as my work, that’s unethical, in my opinion, and also the opinion of the code of ethics for ASAC.”

In addition to the American Society of Agricultural Consultants’ code of ethics, PCAs and CCAs in California follow strict professional standards. PCAs must comply with ethical and legal requirements set by the state Department of Pesticide Regulation, while CCAs adhere to a national Code of Ethics established by the American Society of Agronomy. These guidelines emphasize accuracy, integrity, continued education and transparency to ensure responsible and trustworthy service to clients and the public.

He also cautioned about potential legal risks. “There may be some legal ramifications… Ag consultants, whatever area of consulting they’re working in, need to be considerate of those things and not violate the legal aspects and get themselves in a tremendous amount of trouble.”

As Morgan said, “You never take the agronomist out of the picture.” AI, he believes, is a tool for enhancing, not replacing, ag professionals. Used thoughtfully, it can improve efficiency, accuracy and the value consultants provide to their clients.

To hear more on this subject, check out this recent interview with Morgan on the MyAgLife Daily News Report. Additionally, Morgan led a roundtable discussion in late April titled, “Utilizing Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen AI) In Your Agricultural Consulting Practice.” That recording can be found here.

Effect of Heat on Grapevine Production and Fruit Quality

By
Megan K. Bartlett | Assistant Professor, Department of Viticulture and Enology, UC Davis
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Leaf death from sunburn. Photosynthesis in grapevines is generally optimal from 77 to 95 degrees F and is strongly reduced at temperatures above 105 degrees F (photo by Karen Block, UC Davis.)

The San Joaquin Valley (SJV) is already considered a hot growing region for winegrapes, and heat stress is expected to become more frequent and severe in this region over the next several decades (Livneh et al. 2015). Heat impacts many aspects of vine physiology, and the goal of this article is to provide consultants and growers with a broad overview of these impacts and the consequences for yield and berry quality.

Vegetative Physiology
Heat strongly impacts grapevine carbon and water fluxes through effects on photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration. Photosynthesis in grapevines is generally optimal from 77 to 95 degrees F and is strongly reduced at temperatures above 105 degrees F (Greer 2018; Greer and Weston 2010). This reflects both direct effects from heat and indirect effects from water stress. Temperatures above 85 to 95 degrees F can directly impair photosynthesis by co-opting the leaf metabolism to generate toxins that damage the membranes where these reactions take place (Carvalho et al. 2015). Heat also increases evapotranspiration and vine water stress. Warmer air molecules spread apart, creating more room to hold water vapor and increasing the driving force for water to evaporate from the soil or vine (measured as a higher vapor pressure deficit, or VPD). Excessive dehydration damages vine tissues, so a higher VPD forces grapevines to restrict transpiration by closing the stomata, which in turn limits the CO2 entering the leaf and available for photosynthesis (Chaves et al. 2016). This process not only reduces the carbon available for growth and ripening but can also increase vine water stress and irrigation demand. Heat also accelerates respiration reactions, causing respiration rates to approximately double with every 18 degrees F increase in temperature (Palliotti et al. 2005). This combination of increased respiration and decreased photosynthesis can limit the carbon available for fruit set and ripening under hot conditions.
Vegetative growth can have complex responses to heat. Up to a point, warmer temperatures can increase vine transpiration and the transport of hormones (i.e., cytokinins) from the roots to the shoots, promoting lateral growth and increasing canopy size (Field et al. 2020). However, vegetative growth is one of the most sensitive physiological processes to water stress, so any positive effects on growth will rapidly reverse if heat is sufficient to produce water stress (i.e., pre-dawn water potentials < -0.3 MPa) (Deloire et al. 2020).

Fruit Physiology
In general, warming has accelerated the rate of fruit development. Over the past 30 years, harvest has shifted 24 days earlier in Germany, mostly due to earlier bud break (10 days earlier) and faster sugar accumulation (i.e., the period from veraison to harvest becoming nine days shorter) (Koch and Oehl 2018). However, extreme heat can interfere with fruit development. The effects depend on temperature, duration and timing. At bloom, temperatures >95 degrees F can interfere with flower fertilization, preventing the pollen from forming the tunnels that allow it to reach the ovary, inducing shatter and berry thinning (Kliewer 1977). Heat generally has less impact during fruit set (bloom to veraison) (Greer and Weedon 2013; Greer and Weston 2010). Extreme heat (>100 degrees F) can limit cell division in the berries, but most impacts from heat during this period are indirect effects of water stress on cell expansion. At this stage, the berries receive most water (~80%) through the water transport tissue (xylem), and the rate and direction of xylem water flow is highly dependent on the water potential gradient between the fruit and canopy (Keller et al. 2015). Vegetative water stress at this stage (i.e., pre-dawn water potentials < -0.5 MPa) can decrease water flow to the berries, berry cell expansion and growth (Deloire et al. 2020).

At bloom, temperatures >95 degrees F can interfere with flower fertilization, preventing the pollen from forming the tunnels that allow it to reach the ovary, inducing shatter (pictured) and berry thinning (all photos by George Zhuang, UCCE.)

At veraison, berry water influx switches to the sugar transport tissue (phloem), which is less sensitive to canopy water potentials, and direct effects of temperature become more important. Heat especially impacts quality at this stage, and heat effects can be quite severe, since dark (red) berries can be ~30 degrees F warmer than the air (Venios et al. 2020). Berry temperatures will depend on multiple vineyard design and management factors, including factors affecting radiation exposure from the sky (e.g., trellising, shoot and leaf thinning decisions, shade netting, row orientation) and ground (e.g., cover cropping, fruit zone height) and transpirational cooling (e.g., misting, irrigation) (Keller 2010; Keller and Chang 2023). Heat can have complex effects on sugar accumulation. Warmer temperatures generally increase the rate of sugar accumulation through indirect effects of water stress on the phloem (Salmon et al. 2019). Leaves load sugar into the phloem to create a concentration gradient that pulls in water from the xylem, and this water influx pushes the sugar sap toward the fruit. When the canopy is water-stressed, and water potentials in the xylem are more negative, the phloem needs a higher sugar concentration to pull water away from the xylem, which delivers a more concentrated sap to the berries.

Insipient sunburn on grapes at Oakville Station during the hot 2022 season. Heat and light can interact to produce sunburn, which degrades the waxes in the berry cuticle, leads to severe berry dehydration and alters berry phenolics (photo by Karen Block, UC Davis.)

However, severe heat stress can also stall sugar accumulation. In Australia, a four-day heatwave at 105 degrees F downregulated photosynthesis and stopped sugar transport for two weeks, which could reflect persistent damage from heat or water stress (Greer and Weston 2010). Heat also directly impacts berry acidity and pigment (anthocyanin) levels. Heat accelerates berry respiration and the breakdown of malic acid, so that malate accumulation is optimal between 68 to 77 degrees F and significantly degraded above 105 degrees F (Coombe and McCarthy 2000; Venios et al. 2020). Heat also impairs anthocyanin synthesis and increases degradation above 95 degrees F (Cataldo et al. 2023). Heat and light can also interact to produce sunburn, which degrades the waxes in the berry cuticle, leads to severe berry dehydration and alters berry phenolics (Gambetta et al. 2021).

Heat has wide-ranging impacts on vegetative and fruit physiology. Many heat effects are strongly dependent on water stress or light exposure, making it difficult to predict changes in yield or quality metrics as a function of air temperature, though many processes begin to experience problems above 95 degrees F. We also lack important information on the interactions between duration and intensity in determining heat damage.

References
Carvalho LC., Coito JL., Colaço S., Sangiogo M., Amâncio S. 2015. Heat stress in grapevine: the pros and cons of acclimation: Acclimation to heat stress in grapevine. Plant, Cell & Environment 38:777–789.

Cataldo E., Eichmeier A., Mattii GB. 2023. Effects of Global Warming on Grapevine Berries Phenolic Compounds—A Review. Agronomy 13:2192.

Chaves MM., Costa JM., Zarrouk O., Pinheiro C., Lopes CM., Pereira JS. 2016. Controlling stomatal aperture in semi-arid regions—The dilemma of saving water or being cool? Plant Science 251:54–64.

Coombe BG., McCarthy MG. 2000. Dynamics of grape berry growth and physiology of ripening. Aust J Grape Wine Res 6:131–135.

Deloire A., Pellegrino A., Rogiers S. 2020. A few words on grapevine leaf water potential. Technical Reviews.

Field SK., Smith JP., Morrison EN., Emery RJN., Holzapfel BP. 2020. Soil Temperature Prior to Veraison Alters Grapevine Carbon Partitioning, Xylem Sap Hormones, and Fruit Set. Am J Enol Vitic 71:52–61.

Gambetta JM., Holzapfel BP., Stoll M., Friedel M. 2021. Sunburn in Grapes: A Review. Front Plant Sci 11:604691.

Greer DH. 2018. The short-term temperature-dependency of CO2 photosynthetic responses of two Vitis vinifera cultivars grown in a hot climate. Environmental and Experimental Botany 147:125–137.

Greer DH., Weedon MM. 2013. The impact of high temperatures on Vitis vinifera cv. Semillon grapevine performance and berry ripening. Frontiers in Plant Science 4.

Greer DH., Weston C. 2010. Heat stress affects flowering, berry growth, sugar accumulation and photosynthesis of Vitis vinifera cv. Semillon grapevines grown in a controlled environment. Functional Plant Biology 37:206.

Keller M. 2010. Managing grapevines to optimise fruit development in a challenging environment: a climate change primer for viticulturists. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 16:56–69.

Keller M., Zhang Y., Shrestha PM., Biondi M., Bondada BR. 2015. Sugar demand of ripening grape berries leads to recycling of surplus phloem water via the xylem: Phloem water recycling in grape berries. Plant Cell Environ 38:1048–1059.

Keller MK., Chang BM. 2023. Heat stress in wine grapes: acclimation and potential mitigation. USDA Northwest Center for Small Fruits Research.

Kliewer WM. 1977. Effect of High Temperatures during the Bloom-Set Period on Fruit-Set, Ovule Fertility, and Berry Growth of Several Grape Cultivars. Am J Enol Vitic 28:215–222.

Koch B., Oehl F. 2018. Climate Change Favors Grapevine Production in Temperate Zones. AS 09:247–263.

Livneh B., Bohn TJ., Pierce DW., Munoz-Arriola F., Nijssen B., Vose R., Cayan DR, Brekke L. 2015. A spatially comprehensive, hydrometeorological data set for Mexico, the U.S., and Southern Canada 1950–2013. Scientific Data 2:150042.

Palliotti A., Cartechini A., Silvestroni O., Mattioli S. 2005. RESPIRATION ACTIVITY IN DIFFERENT ABOVE-GROUND ORGANS OF VITIS VINIFERA L. IN RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE AND DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE. Acta Hortic:159–166.

Salmon Y., Dietrich L., Sevanto S., Hölttä T., Dannoura M., Epron D. 2019. Drought impacts on tree phloem: from cell-level responses to ecological significance. M Ryan (ed.). Tree Physiology 39:173–191.

Venios X., Korkas E., Nisiotou A., Banilas G. 2020. Grapevine Responses to Heat Stress and Global Warming. Plants 9:1754.

Improving Weed Management Programs in Pear Orchards

By
Clebson Gonçalves | UCCE Diversified Agriculture Advisor, Lake and Mendocino Counties
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Figure 1. Weed population fully recovered eight weeks post-application of glyphosate (A) and glufosinate (B) compared to the untreated area (C).

Developing a weed management program in conventional pear orchards is a challenge, varies from orchard to orchard and is influenced by weed species populations, weed pressure, management practices and local environmental condition. Integrated weed strategies ideally involve the use of multiple strategies, including mowing, chemically mowing, discing and cultivation in the row middles of trees, herbicide strip sprays and the adoption of selected cover crops.

Pear orchards usually require intensive irrigation and high moisture in the soil, especially in late May, June and early July, when the fruit is increasing in size. Optimum soil moisture and temperature in the orchard floor favors a high pressure of summer weed infestation, which requires multiple post-emergent herbicide applications to keep the pear orchard floor weed-free during the growing and harvesting season.

For California pear orchards, recommended herbicide programs may include a fall/winter (November to February) strip spray with preemergent (indaziflam, rimsulfuron, pendimethalin, or flumioxazin) in a tank mixture with post-emergent (glyphosate or saflufenacil). However, during the growing season, the strip spray herbicide programs are primarily performed using only post-emergent herbicides in April, late May and July.

Improve Herbicide Program Rotation
Over the past few decades, glyphosate has been the most used herbicide registered for post-emergence non-selective weed management of annual and perennial weeds in conventional pear orchards. However, some weed populations, such as Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), junglerice (Echinochloa colona), annual bluegrass (Poa annua) horseweed (Conyza canadensis) and hairy fleabane (Conyza bonariensis), have developed resistance to glyphosate, and poor control of weeds with glyphosate application programs have been observed more frequently in California orchards.

Practitioners are seeking broad-spectrum herbicide alternatives to glyphosate. However, substitutes have scarcely been evaluated due to glyphosate’s history of being effective and affordable. Although this doesn’t seem imminent, if glyphosate were no longer available, glufosinate-ammonium appears to be the most efficient and economical option. Glufosinate is a contact non-selective herbicide that is very effective against annual broadleaf and grass weeds but is less effective against biennial and perennial weeds and may require sequential applications to achieve satisfactory control. Overall, the labels of glyphosate and glufosinate indicated outstanding performance in controlling a wide variety of weeds. For this reason, glufosinate has been ranked as the best alternative currently available.

Consider Adding Preemergent Herbicides in Late Spring Spray Programs
Weed infestation in pear orchards is a year-round problem, especially during the growing season and preharvest with various annual and perennial species such as field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), nutsedge (Cyperus spp.) and summer grass such as Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), junglerice (Echinochloa colona), foxtails (Setaria spp.), crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), etc. Due to high weed infestation during the growing season, post-emergent-only herbicide programs have short-lasting weed control (Fig. 1), requiring multiple sequential applications to keep weeds below an acceptable threshold. Beyond that, the use of many herbicide programs may require minimum intervals between the last herbicide application and harvest of up to 75 days for pear growers delivering the crop to specific markets. Therefore, it is difficult to select herbicide application programs that provide long-lasting control.

Generally, preemergent herbicide programs in pear orchards are typically applied in the fall/winter to early spring and have scarcely been evaluated for late spring application. This lack of information warrants more research regarding the effectiveness and crop safety of preemergent and post-emergent herbicide programs for late spring application. We believe preemergent herbicide programs added to the tank mixture may bring several benefits for late spring application, such as improved long-lasting control, prevention of herbicide-resistant weed evolution, reduction in total number of operations required for weed management and increase in preharvest minimum intervals.

Procedures
In late spring 2024, we established two herbicide field trials in Lake and Mendocino counties to compare the effectiveness of glyphosate and glufosinate sprayed side by side and to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of (preemergent and post-emergent) herbicide programs with different modes of action to improve weed management in pear orchards.

For these studies, we compared glyphosate (Roundup PowerMAX®) at 64 fl oz/ac and glufosinate (Rely® 280) at 56 fl oz/ac applied alone and in a tank mixture at two different rates with indaziflam (Alion®) at 3.5 and 4.5 fl oz/ac, rimsulfuron (Matrix®) at 3.0 and 4.0 fl oz/ac, or pendimethalin (Prowl H2O®) at 70.4 and 102.4 fl oz/ac, applied in a water carrier volume of 30 gallons per acre (GPA) with 11003 VS flat-fan spray nozzles. To reduce costs, growers may consider generic herbicides rather than the brand-name counterparts used in these trials. In many cases, generic herbicides may have the same effectiveness as brand-name counterparts at a lower cost (consult your local UCCE farm advisor or your PCA and always read the pesticide label.)

Efficacy
The main weeds present at the trial sites were jungle rice, crabgrass, common bermudagrass, yellow nutsedge and field bindweed. Our results showed both glyphosate and glufosinate applied in late May provided excellent weed control greater than 90% for most weeds present at the trial sites. Overall, glufosinate proved to be a broad-spectrum herbicide with equivalent grass and broadleaf weed control to glyphosate (Fig. 2). However, both glyphosate and glufosinate have low residual activity, and most weeds began to germinate or regrow from regenerative underground propagules via roots, rhizomes or tubers, indicating the need for sequential application around four to six weeks after initial application for effective long-term weed control (Fig. 3).

Figure 2. Performance of glyphosate (A) and glufosinate (B) at two weeks post-application.
Figure 3. Weed population germinating or regrowing at four weeks post-application of glyphosate (A) and glufosinate (B).

Overall, the results showed glyphosate or glufosinate applied in a tank mixture with the preemergent herbicides indaziflam, rimsulfuron or pendimethalin at the rates used in these studies provided excellent weed control for most weeds present in the orchard sites and improved long-lasting weed control when compared to glyphosate or glufosinate applied alone.

The tank mixture program with preemergent herbicides indaziflam or pendimethalin provided better long-term control of jungle rice and crabgrass than rimsulfuron. On the other hand, all preemergent herbicides showed similar control of broadleaf weeds present in the orchard sites.

Our results also indicated glyphosate or glufosinate applied in a tank mixture with pendimethalin provide inferior control of yellow nutsedge compared to indaziflam or rimsulfuron tank mix (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Poor control of yellow nutsedge with tank mixture of glyphosate + pendimethalin (A) compared to glyphosate + indaziflam (B) or glyphosate + rimsulfuron (C) at eight weeks post-application.

In general, late spring application of glyphosate or glufosinate alone and in a tank mixture with indaziflam, rimsulfuron or pendimethalin at the rates used in these studies were safe for pear trees with no injury observed.

Our results indicated glufosinate may be a great alternative to glyphosate with similar efficacy for controlling a broad spectrum of weeds, and adding preemergent herbicide to the late spring herbicide application programs may improve long-term weed control.

The results of these studies and the literature review strongly suggest developing more efficient herbicide application programs or alternatives to glyphosate by using herbicides with different modes of action may help to reduce potentially resistant weeds. Also, adopting spray programs with preemergent and post-emergent herbicides promotes longer-lasting weed control, reducing the number of herbicide applications, increasing the time window between the last herbicide application and the harvest season, and reducing the risk of herbicide residue in the crop.

These studies may contribute to growers and PCAs developing a more complete integrated weed management program in conventional pear orchard systems and potentially result in a reduction of costs by not adopting preharvest strip sprays.

These studies will be repeated in 2025 to confirm preliminary data assessed in 2024. The mention of active ingredients or products in this article is not an endorsement or recommendation. Consult your local UCCE farm advisor or your PCA for a recommendation and always read the pesticide label; the label is the law.

The authors would like to thank California Pear Advisory Board and Pear Pest Management Research Fund for funding these studies. We thank Wilfredo Bello, UCCE agricultural technician in Lake County, for the technical support.

Organic vs Conventional Vegetable Production: Pros and Cons

By
Christopher Hight | CCA, Lab Manager, Bonipak Produce, Inc.
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Figure 1. Organic market trend reports from the Organic Trade Association between 2013 and 2022 showing incremental growth in organic food sales (all photos courtesy C. Hight.)

The first concepts of organic agriculture as we now know it were developed in the early 1900s by Sir Albert Howard, Rudolf Steiner and F. H. King (Adamchak 2024). These individuals believed in the use of animal manures, composts, cover crops, crop rotation and a very early version of integrated pest management that, when combined, resulted in a better system approach to farming. After World War II and the invention of the Haber-Bosch process, there was an excess of nitrogen-containing compounds, and to relieve the excess, these products were applied to agricultural fields. While yields increased, there was an unforeseen detriment to natural populations of microbes and beneficial predators. Modern organic farming developed as a response to the environmental harm of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers used in conventional agricultural systems. Organic farming has been shown to lower pesticide usage, reduce soil erosion, increase cycling of nutrients (which decreases the likelihood of leaching to groundwater and surface water) and aid in recycling animal wastes. Although more ecologically friendly, organic farming tends to have a higher production cost and generally a lower yield. With an increasing concern for pesticide residues and consumer awareness of genetically modified organisms, organic food sales have steadily increased over the latter half of the 20th century and continue to show increases today (Fig. 1).

Organic Vegetable Production Practices
Organic vegetable production systems rely on natural inputs, such as amino acids, proteins, composts and manures, to supply nutrients to the plants. These N-containing inputs must go through the process of mineralization from amino acids to ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3–) by microorganisms to become plant-available. The availability of nutrients supplied to the plants depends on many factors, such as carbon to nitrogen ratio and N% of the material as well as the moisture, temperature and texture of the soil. The release of N from these materials is variable but predictable in a laboratory setting, however in-field factors make release timing and quantity difficult to anticipate (Lazicki et al. 2020). This can lead to lower crop yields and difficulty controlling pests (Giampieri et al. 2022). An increased reliance on a whole systems approach is needed to effectively produce organic vegetables. There is evidence to suggest practices, such as legume cover crops and reducing tillage, can increase soil organic matter (SOM) and provide additional nutrients in both organic and conventional systems (Fig. 2). Growers who grow organically can expect a higher input cost but can typically also expect a higher price at the market. Consumers who purchase organic produce view this as a way to consume less synthetic pesticides and increased nutrient content (dos Santos et al. 2019). Organic inputs also provide a higher amount of C to the soil, increasing microbial biomass and activity, which are seen as positive soil health indicators. Published reports show under organic management, total and organic C, total N, available phosphorus and calcium, magnesium, manganese, zinc and copper were greater compared to conventional systems (Chausali and Saxena 2021). The dynamics of N mineralization (Nmin) may also be affected by long-term organic management compared to conventional management. Once again, a whole systems approach to organic farming is necessary to reap high yields with low pest pressure and a low environmental impact.

Figure 2. Example of a no-till or reduced-till field inter-seeded with clover, a nitrogen-fixing cover crop. There is evidence to suggest practices like legume cover crops can increase soil organic matter.

Conventional Vegetable Production Practices
Conventional vegetable production systems rely on synthetic fertilizer and pesticides to provide nutrients to plants and protect them from disease and insects. While synthetic fertilizer inputs can target key growth points to maximize yield and reduce environmental pollution, synthetic fertilizers can be detrimental to natural soil microbial populations. Additionally, caution must be taken as overapplying N- and P-containing fertilizers can move with soil colloids and surface water to pollute rivers and streams. Consumers see synthetic pesticides with a negative connotation but may not understand the precision, regulation and care with which the synthetics are applied (Fig. 3). Improper use of insecticides, fungicides and other pesticides can cause insects and other pests to develop resistance to chemistry within said formulations. These same synthetics may reduce microbial populations, leading to decreased overall soil health. However, when managed correctly, these products can rescue crops from infestations of insects or other diseases. Conventional production provides growers more room for error as many products can provide nutrients immediately compared to organic systems that require mineralization of nutrients to become available to plants. Additionally, with a well-timed pesticide application, potential crop loss due to an insect swarm can be mitigated, often easier said than done in organic production. While all farming is difficult, conventional farming is more forgiving than organic farming on individuals learning the art of vegetable production.

Figure 3 . An example of an undisturbed 6-inch soil core fitted with parafilm and puncture holes to allow ventilation. Cores were then incubated at 25 degrees C and 60% water holding capacity to mimic ideal soil conditions.

Comparing the Two Paradigms
On California’s Central Coast, a study is currently underway investigating Nmin dynamics of 20 pairs of organic and conventional fields with similar environmental conditions and soil types. After a vegetable crop is harvested, 6-inch undisturbed soil cores are taken alongside a composite 6-inch soil sample (Fig. 4). The soil sample represents the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil pre-incubation. The undisturbed cores are then incubated for 10 weeks at 25 degrees C and 60% water holding capacity to determine how much N mineralizes or immobilizes within that period. The entirety of the samples will be analyzed as such, and analyses will be performed to determine the most significant characteristics driving N availability. We hypothesize the organic fields will have a lower starting inorganic N content but mineralize more N over a 10-week incubation, and characteristics that most impact the quantity mineralized will be water holding capacity, SOM content and N% in the soil.

Is a Combination of Practices Best?
Conventional and organic management systems produce many of the same vegetables on the Central Coast, including broccoli, cauliflower, romaine and celery. Similar nutrient requirements are needed to produce adequate yields in both systems. Conventional systems provide inorganic nutrients that are immediately available for uptake bypassing the need for microbial mineralization. N-containing organic amendments require microbial decomposition to become available to plants. N dynamics in either system depend on a multitude of factors, including other cations and anions, SOM content, N% of the soil, moisture and temperature of the soil as well as amendments and crop residues added. While conventional practices allow for immediate applications of fertilizers and pesticides and organic fields require a whole systems approach and forward thinking, potentially bridging the gap between the two practices could be a practical approach. The added organic amendments with their high carbon content can contribute to soil health metrics and a robust microbial population, meanwhile the grower knows they have a failsafe in the back pocket in case something goes wrong. This lends to sustainable agriculture, which strives to provide resources necessary for our population to thrive while also conserving the planet’s natural ability to sustain future populations of plants, animals and humans. All this to say the preference for organic vs conventionally produced vegetables is for the consumer to decide. The practices that promote the best soil, air and water will be determined by a combination of growers and researchers interacting with and weighing practicality, sustainability and return on investment.

References
Adamchak, R. (Dec. 21st, 2024). Organic Farming. In Biritannica (Ed.), Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/organic-farming.

Chausali, N., & Saxena, J. (2021). Chapter 15 – Conventional versus organic farming: Nutrient status. In V. S. Meena, S. K. Meena, A. Rakshit, J. Stanley, & C. Srinivasarao (Eds.), Advances in Organic Farming (pp. 241-254). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822358-1.00003-1

dos Santos, A. M. P., Lima, J. S., dos Santos, I. F., Silva, E. F. R., de Santana, F. A., de Araujo, D. G. G. R., & dos Santos, L. O. (2019). Mineral and centesimal composition evaluation of conventional and organic cultivars sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam) using chemometric tools. Food Chemistry, 273, 166-171. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.12.063

Giampieri, F., Mazzoni, L., Cianciosi, D., Alvarez-Suarez, J. M., Regolo, L., Sánchez-González, C., Capocasa, F., Xiao, J., Mezzetti, B., & Battino, M. (2022). Organic vs conventional plant-based foods: A review. Food Chemistry, 383, 132352. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132352

Lazicki, P., Geisseler, D., & Lloyd, M. (2020). Nitrogen mineralization from organic amendments is variable but predictable. Journal of Environmental Quality, 49(2), 483-495. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.20030

Actual Grapevine Water Use and Water Status Are Affected by Vineyard Topography

By
Daniele Zaccaria | Professor of Agricultural Water Management, Alexander and Elizabeth Swantz Endowed Specialist in Cooperative Extension, UC Davis, Lynn Wunderlich | UCCE Farm Advisor (Retired), Amador County, Kristen Shapiro | GIS Programmer, UC Davis and Richard Snyder | Biometeorology Specialist Emeritus, UC Davis
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Figure 1. Aerial photo of the study vineyard blocks with north- and south-facing aspects and locations of the evapotranspiration (ET) measurement stations.

Many California specialty crop production areas often face significant water supply curtailments due to recurring droughts and stringent environmental regulations. In this context, the utilization of field-specific information is crucial to enhance irrigation management practices and pursue profitable and high-quality food production under more pronounced weather vagaries and increasingly variable fresh water supplies.

The rapid adoption of pressure-compensating microirrigation systems during the last 15 years has enabled California winegrape growers to establish vineyards in areas with marginal soils and sloping terrains that otherwise were unsuited to other irrigation methods. While some degree of slope can be beneficial in vineyards for improved drainage of excess water, better airflow through the vines and faster escape of cold air to reduce the risks of springtime frost damages, it can affect microclimatic conditions, radiation interception, vine water use and sometimes influence grapes ripening.

Several researchers documented winegrape quality ties with irrigation management and grapevine water status (Jackson and Lombard 1993; Kennedy et al. 2002; Downey et al. 2004). The amount of irrigation water required to grow quality winegrapes and the frequency of irrigation applications depend on several site-specific factors, such as vine growth stage, vine and row spacing, vine density, size of vine canopy (Williams, 2001), soil texture and terrain characteristics.

Little information is available to growers about water use of vineyards on sloping terrains with different aspects. Such information is necessary as growers seek more resource-efficient production practices and vine water stress monitoring techniques to manage grape yield and quality, and as future water supplies become increasingly variable, uncertain, limited and costly.

Recently, a team of UC researchers measured the actual grapevine evapotranspiration (ETa), its seasonal dynamics and vine water status in two winegrape vineyard blocks grown with microirrigation on sloping terrains with north- and south-facing aspects in El Dorado County during three consecutive seasons (2016, 2017, 2018).  The goal of this field research study was documenting differences in grapevine water consumption (ET) due to slope and aspect for adapting irrigation management based on vineyard topography.

Study Site and Field Data Collection
The UC team instrumented two adjacent north- and south-facing commercial vineyard blocks (Fig. 1) located near Pilot Hill in El Dorado County for collecting field data of biophysical parameters. El Dorado County is in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains and is a relatively small but growing California winegrape production region falling within the California grape pricing district 10, where the top three varieties are Zinfandel, Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah. 

Both the vineyard blocks consisted of vines of Cabernet Sauvignon grafted onto 3309 Couderc rootstock, planted in 2000 at a density of 1,507 vines per acre and trained in a bilateral cordon vertical shoot positioned system with north-south vine row orientation. The vines were irrigated using single driplines with two pressure-compensating online button drippers per vine with nominal flowrate of 0.5 gph.

Both the north and south blocks had Auburn series very rocky loam soil with a typical depth of 2 feet, as mapped by the USDA-National Cooperative Soil Survey (California Soil Resource Lab 2019). The north-facing slope presented a different, shallower soil, with bedrock at 33 inches depth, but with less gravel content in the upper 20 inches and more finely textured clay retaining more moisture than in the south-slope soil. The terrain slopes in the north and south blocks were 24.5% and 25.5%, respectively.

ETa was determined with the residual of energy balance method from micrometeorological measurements of net radiation (Rn), ground heat flux and sensible heat flux obtained from one full-flux ET measurement station at each vineyard block (Fig. 1) consisting of a combination of eddy covariance and surface renewal equipment.

Actual crop coefficient (Ka) values were calculated dividing the measured ETa by atmospheric water demand (ETo) values obtained over the corresponding time-step from the automated weather station #195 (Auburn) of the California Irrigation Management Information System (CIMIS), according to the relation Ka = ETa/ETo.

The UC team assessed the vine water status during the three growing seasons with periodic measurements of the midday stem water potential on clear-sky days (between 11:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m.) using a Scholander-type pressure chamber on six vines per vineyard block (one fully expanded and shaded leaf per vine), which were randomly selected within the footprint area of each ET station.

Table 1 reports the amounts of irrigation water applied in the north- and south-facing vineyard blocks, recorded with magnetic flowmeters during the three consecutive crop seasons and the monthly rainfall values recorded at the nearby CIMIS station. Differences in applied water were observed between the north and south blocks, which likely resulted from different application rates between the blocks but also from adjustments of irrigation frequency and duration based on visual assessment of vines’ and appearance. In fact, the vineyard manager applied irrigation water with varying frequencies and durations over the different months, the vineyard manager reported that irrigations for the two vineyards blocks were scheduled based on visual observations of the vines. The vineyard manager also considered the available soil moisture from periodic soil probing and existing water supply limitations.

Light interception by the vine canopies was measured during the 2018 growing season using the ‘Paso Panel’ canopy shade meter (Battany 2009), which consists of a solar collector panel, a voltage meter and power switch attached to a portable frame. Holding the Paso Panel underneath the grapevine canopy for a few seconds allowed for measuring the voltage current generated by sunlight passing through the foliage and striking the panel’s surface as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Measurement of light interception by vine canopies in a commercial production vineyard on the California Central Coast (left) and the study vineyard in El Dorado County (right) (photos courtesy Mark Battany, UCCE, and D. Zaccaria.)

The current readings obtained placing the panel under vine canopies at multiple locations in the vineyards were then divided by current readings taken under full sun outside the vineyards to determine the shaded area by the vine canopy, which is a proxy of the vines’ fractional canopy cover. All the measurements in the north and south vineyard blocks were taken during clear-sky days at solar noon ± one hour and then calibrated against full-sun current readings. The values of shaded area by vines (%) were used to determine comparative differences in vines’ canopy growth and size between the north and south blocks.

Actual Grapevine Water Use for North- and South-Facing Blocks
Figure 3 illustrates the ETa for the north and south vineyard blocks in 2016, 2017 and 2018 along with ETo. From the figure, it can be noticed that the north and south blocks had very similar season-long cumulative ETa values, but the time course of ETa differed between the two blocks during the three growing seasons. In the 2016 and 2018 growing seasons, ETa was slightly higher in the south block than the north block from April to early June, then ETa of the north and south blocks matched in late June. Afterward, the north block had slightly higher ETa from late June until late September to early October.

Figure 3. Season-long cumulative actual grapevine evapotranspiration (ETa) measured in the north- and south-facing vineyard blocks and reference grass evapotranspiration (ETo) obtained from the local CIMIS station (Station #195, Auburn, Calif.) for 2016-18 seasons.

The field dataset of 2017 shows very similar seasonal cumulative ETa values for the north and south blocks, but differences in ETa can only be noticed for the period from late June to early September, with the north block having slightly higher ETa than the south block, which is consistent with the pattern of 2016 and 2018. From mid-September to late October 2017, the south block had slightly higher ETa than the north block, which reveals a contrasting pattern to that of 2016 and 2018. The higher late season ETa in the north block in 2017 was probably due to larger water applications that occurred during irrigation events in late July and August in the area surrounding the ET measurement station of the north vineyard, which likely resulted from a dripline leak going unnoticed for more than a month as reported by the vineyard manager and as revealed by the flowmeter records of 2017 (Table 1).

Table 1. Applied irrigation water in the north (N) and south (S) facing study vineyards blocks obtained from flowmeter records and monthly cumulative rainfall during the 2016-18 crop seasons from CIMIS station #195.

Figure 4 shows the time course of weekly averaged ETa values measured in the north and south vineyard blocks for the three seasons. In this case, slightly higher ETa was observed in the south block early in the season from April to early June in all three years; afterwards, higher ETa occurred in the N block during the central part of the season from early to mid-June through early to mid-August in all three years, whereas slightly higher ETa was observed in the south block relative to the north block in the late part of the season in 2016 and 2017. On the contrary, slightly higher ETa was observed in the north block relative to the south block during the late part of the 2018 season.

Figure 4. Weekly average actual grapevine evapotranspiration (ETa) measured in north- and south-facing vineyard blocks during
2016-18 seasons.

The data in Figure 4 clearly show vines in the north block expressed higher water use during the central part of the growing season, which is possibly related to higher interception of solar radiation during the period around the summer solstice, when the sun reaches its most northerly excursion relative to the equator. Higher water use in that period may also be related to the north block having relatively larger canopy size or accessing larger soil moisture reserves, thus facing less water limitations during the hottest part of the growing season.

Figure 5 shows the weekly cumulative values of Rn measured in the north and south blocks during the study seasons. The Rn data show higher Rn values were measured in the south block during the early and late parts of the season in all three years, whereas Rn values were similar in both blocks in the central part of the growing season in 2016 and 2018, or slightly higher in the north than the south block in 2017.

Figure 5. Weekly cumulative values of the net radiation (Rn) measured in north- and south-facing vineyard blocks during 2016-18 seasons.

Rn is the main force driving crop evapotranspiration. In detail, when soil moisture is abundant and can support vine water consumption without restrictions, higher Rn leads to higher grapevine ETa, all other factors (vines’ canopy size, light interception, available soil moisture) being similar. In the Mediterranean climate of northern California, these conditions normally occur in the period between March and mid-June, when grapevine growth is supported by abundant soil moisture resulting from late winter and early spring rainfall, thus there is no need to irrigate. Later, Rn still drives ETa, which is however dynamically regulated by the available soil moisture from irrigation and by the amount of radiation intercepted by the vines’ canopy. As such, the ETa pattern may not necessarily follow that of Rn, especially when vines face water stress because of deficit irrigation or because of difference in vines’ canopy size or soil moisture available to roots. In other words, multiple factors regulate the actual vine ETa, including canopy size, row orientation and available soil moisture as well as the angle of incidence of solar radiation, which in turn depends on the position of the sun along the growing season relative to vineyard topography (i.e., slope and aspect).

A good relative indicator of vine water use is the actual crop coefficient (Ka), which reflects the actual ETa rate relative to ETo. Figure 6 shows the weekly averaged grapevine Ka values calculated for the north and south blocks over the course of the three consecutive seasons. Ka integrates the atmospheric water demand with the grapevine’s physiologic processes, regulating the actual vine evapotranspiration alongside the plant-available soil moisture, thus providing synthetic information on actual grapevine water use in the site-specific and plant-specific conditions of the vineyard study blocks.

Figure 6. Weekly averaged values of the actual crop coefficient (Ka) measured in north- and south-facing vineyard blocks during the 2016-18 seasons.

Figure 6 shows Ka was higher in the south block early in the season until mid-May 2016 and 2018, then the north block had higher Ka than the south block from early June to early August in all three seasons. Afterward, Ka was higher in the south block from mid-August to the end of the crop season in 2016 and 2017, whereas it was similar in the north and south blocks from mid-August to the end of the 2018 crop season. The figure also shows in 2016 and 2018 that Ka reached its peak values early in the season between mid-April to early May (whereas in 2017, peak Ka values were observed around late June) and progressively decreased during the course of the growing season, revealing increasing ETa reduction.

Following ETa or Ka could provide relevant information for tailoring irrigation management decisions (i.e., timing and amounts of water applications) based on actual grapevine water consumption, especially during periods of water supply restrictions. However, ET-based irrigation scheduling alone may not allow for targeting water stress levels that are conducive to reductions of grapevine vegetative growth and to specific fruit yield and quality targets.

Some additional considerations can be drawn observing Figure 7, which shows the values of midday stem water potential (ΨSTEM) measured in the north and south blocks over the course of the three crop seasons. In all three years, ΨSTEM values decreased progressively from values between -2 ÷ -4 bars early in the season to values between -12 ÷ -15 bars towards the final part of the season, revealing vines in both the north and south blocks were exposed to increasing water stress. Vines in the south blocks had relatively lower (more negative) ΨSTEM values from April to early or mid-August in 2016, 2017 and 2018. ΨSTEM values were lower in the north block from early August to the end of the season in 2016 and 2017, whereas vines in the north and south blocks had similar ΨSTEM values from mid-August to the end of the season in 2018.

Figure 7. Stem water potential (ΨSTEM) values measured in north- and south-facing vineyard blocks during the 2016-18 seasons.

As far as plant water status is concerned, the relatively lower ΨSTEM values of vines in the S block in the first half of the crop season for all three seasons could possibly be due to higher environmental water demand on those vines (i.e., higher Rn). Similarly, the lower ΨSTEM values of north vines during the central part of the season was possibly related to higher environmental water demand in the north block due to similar incidence of solar radiation between the two blocks but higher light interception by the vines (resulting from larger vines’ canopy) in the north block. Alongside, the flow meter records showed larger irrigation water applications in the south block in late July and August 2016 and 2017, which possibly relieved some water stress on the south vines.

Table 2 reports the values of light interception by the vines’ canopy measured during the 2018 season in the north and south blocks, which reveal slightly faster vegetative growth and larger vines’ canopy size in the north than the south during the 2018 crop season.

Table 2. Light interception by vines’ canopy measured in the north (N) and south (S) study vineyard blocks during the 2018 season.

According to Kurtural et al. (2007), faster canopy growth and larger canopy size in north-facing vineyards can be expected in Mediterranean climate as a result of relatively earlier bud-break and relatively lower impact of heat stress on vines relative to south facing slopes. All other factors being equal, in south facing slopes heat can increase during daytime above stress threshold levels, thus causing lower stomata conductance, less carbon assimilation and slower vegetation growth.

Controlling Water Use and Status at a Higher Level
Many winegrapes production regions have hillside vineyards, where the actual water consumption is affected not only by grapevine age and health, vine density, canopy size, row orientation and irrigation management practices, but also by the terrain slope and aspect. Topography affects the amount of solar radiation the vines receive and intercept, which is a major driving force of grapevine evapotranspiration under abundant soil moisture.

Irrigation scheduling for winegrape vineyards must consider multiple factors that regulate actual grapevine water consumption in order to maintain vine water status at specific target levels for limiting vegetative growth while pursuing fruit yield and quality objectives. Among others, vines’ canopy size, row orientation and available soil moisture to vines are major factors. However, the field datasets collected in the UC research study show vineyard topography factors (i.e., slope and aspect) also play a significant role in regulating ETa in hillside vineyards. As such, following an evapotranspiration-based irrigation scheduling with generalized crop coefficients derived from other locations and vineyard conditions may not be appropriate. Instead, following ETa and Ka determined for the site-specific vineyard conditions provides relevant information for irrigation scheduling decisions, but may not enable growers to pursue vine water stress levels that are desirable in specific stages of the growing season for achieving grape yield and fruit composition objectives.

Integrating weather- and plant-based irrigation scheduling approaches allows for higher level of control on grapevine water status that is necessary for grape yield, composition and quality purposes. For example, following ETa and Ka while keeping track of ΨSTEM values can provide more integrative information on actual vines’ evapotranspiration and water status for more precise irrigation management decisions.

In the field, ΨSTEM values can help decide irrigation timings more precisely, while ETa and Ka enable to determine adequate irrigation amounts for maintaining the desired water deficit levels to balance vegetative growth with grape yield and composition goals.

References
Battany, M.C., 2009. Estimating vineyard water use in the estrella-creston area of concern. Url http://cesanluisobispo.ucdavis.edu/files/71055.pdf

California Soil Resource Lab., 2019. Ssurgo (soil survey geographic), url https://casoilresource.lawr.ucdavis.edu/soilweb-apps
Cimis, 2018. California irrigation management information system, url https://cimis.water.ca.gov/

Downey, M.O., Harvey, J.S., Robinson, S.P., 2004. The effect of bunch shading on berry development and flavonoid accumulation in shiraz grapes. Australian journal of grape and wine research, 10(1), 55-73.

Jackson, D.I., Lombard, P.B., 1993. Environmental and management practices affecting grape composition and wine quality-a review. American journal of enology and viticulture, 44(4), 409-430.

Kennedy, j.a., Matthews, m.a., Waterhouse, a.l., 2002. Effect of maturity and vine water status on grape skin and wine flavonoids. American journal of enology and viticulture, 53(4), 268-274.

Kurtural, s.k., Dami, i.e., Taylor, b.h., 2007. Utilizing gis technologies in selection of suitable vineyard sites. International journal of fruit science, 6(3), 87-107.

Williams, l.e., 2001. Irrigation of winegrapes in california. Practical winery & vineyard, 23, 42-55.

New Data on Insecticide Resistance in Alfalfa Weevil

By
Ian Grettenberger | Assistant Professor of Cooperative Extension, Dept. of Entomology and Nematology, UC Davis, Michael Rethwisch | UCCE Farm Advisor, Riverside County and Erika Rodbell | Forage Research Agronomist, Forage Genetics International
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Insecticide resistance threatens current management regimes for alfalfa weevil. Reducing selection pressure through fewer insecticide applications would aid resistance management.

In the Western U.S., alfalfa weevil is one of the key arthropod pests. Left unmanaged, it can defoliate alfalfa stands and cause economic damage through yield and quality loss. Because of this, alfalfa weevils are frequently managed, typically with insecticide applications, given the availability (or lack thereof) of many tools for weevil management.

Insecticide resistance threatens current management regimes for alfalfa weevil. Problematically, alfalfa weevil has displayed a capacity to evolve insecticide resistance during its time as a pest in North America, demonstrating this isn’t a new issue. For instance, treatment failures were reported in Utah in the 1960s for heptachlor, an old insecticide chemistry.
Pyrethroid insecticides have been heavily relied upon for over a decade for alfalfa weevil management. This has included several active ingredients (and products), but lambda-cyhalothrin in particular has seen very heavy use. Pyrethroids have been highly effective for alfalfa weevil and have been cost-effective, which is especially relevant for alfalfa as a field crop with often tight margins. Given the utility of pyrethroids, many fields were sprayed with them yearly. This intense selection pressure has created pockets of resistance in California, most other western states, various midwestern states and Canada. It is also important to remember insecticide resistance occurs when an insect pest can tolerate typically lethal doses of an insecticide. Not all individual insects in a population are equal in their genetics, which means resistance, or “reduced susceptibility,” can be present before a complete control failure in the field is noted. In areas with high degrees of resistance, pyrethroids became completely ineffective.

Currently, indoxacarb (Steward) has been the primary alternative to pyrethroids. In some regions, with the onset of resistance, indoxacarb has become the primary (or only) insecticide used to manage alfalfa weevils. This switch has been rapid at times. Indoxacarb has also seen an uptick in usage because it is not as harsh on natural enemies of aphids as pyrethroids and thus causes fewer aphid issues. Therefore, it has benefits to production outside of providing an alternative should pyrethroids fail. Cost-wise, it is more expensive than pyrethroids, which likely limited its use. In these areas with high pyrethroid resistance, indoxacarb has become the only insecticide used in recent years, with resistant alfalfa weevils forcing growers’ hands in terms of insecticide choice.

Results from the survey of lambda-cyhalothrin resistance in alfalfa weevil populations are displayed using pie charts. Each circle represents an individual county. (adapted from Rodbell et al. 2022)

Research on Pyrethroid Resistance
Our research, led by Montana State and UC Davis with cooperators from UC ANR (advisors) and faculty in other states, documented resistance to pyrethroids (specifically lambda-cyhalothrin) in many western states. This reflected issues known among California growers and PCAs regarding intense resistance. In California, this included areas of Siskiyou, Merced and Riverside counties. We conducted a multi-state assessment of susceptibility to lambda-cyhalothrin, a type II pyrethroid, along with additional assays targeting other type II and type I pyrethroids. In brief, we used laboratory bioassays with alfalfa weevils from multiple populations and exposed them to multiple concentrations of the tested insecticide using a coated glass vial.

The findings indicate resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin is present across the western U.S. Resistance is present in virtually all western states tested, sometimes at very high levels. That said, especially in cases where our sampling did not explicitly target areas where resistance was known to be prevalent due to control failures, susceptibility was still observed in many regions. Importantly, resistance exists on a gradient, with many populations falling along this spectrum, including some in the moderately resistant category or barely within our self-defined “susceptible” category. This means that continued selection could easily push these populations into a more resistant category. Various populations also displayed multiple resistance, with resistance to both lambda-cyhalothrin and other type II pyrethroids, including beta-cyfluthrin, zeta-cypermethrin, alpha-cypermethrin and zeta-cypermethrin. Given that we do not know if populations were only exposed to one type II pyrethroid active ingredient or multiple active ingredients, these resistance patterns could be driven by exposure to a single active ingredient or some mixture over time. However, this means in many cases, multiple pyrethroids would be rendered ineffective simultaneously.
Results from the survey of lambda-cyhalothrin resistance in alfalfa weevil populations are displayed using pie charts. Each circle represents an individual county. Within each county, we tested different numbers of populations, with each population represented by a slice of the pie. Different colors indicate resistance level categories. Additionally, two counties in California with known histories of past high-level resistance issues where we did not obtain usable data or where we did not find high levels of resistance are indicated with colored squares. Importantly, some populations were specifically tested due to known issues with insecticide resistance, especially in states other than Montana and California, while populations in those two states were tested more randomly to better assess the scope of resistance (Rodbell et al. 2022).

Managing Insecticide Resistance
One of the primary methods of avoiding or managing insecticide resistance is rotating modes of action across generations of a pest. For alfalfa weevil, rotation would typically occur across years because alfalfa weevil has one significant peak of activity per year. Unfortunately, alfalfa currently has very limited insecticide options for alfalfa weevil. There are a handful of possible options, but none are effective enough to manage alfalfa weevils in most scenarios. For instance, spinosad provides some level of control but is most relevant in organic production due to its more limited efficacy. Without many options for rotation, pest managers have few choices to create a rotation. Furthermore, the pipeline for new insecticides is fairly empty, and the outlook for new materials is not promising. Any new materials would be welcome tools, but they too would need to be managed from a resistance standpoint.

Reliance on a single insecticide eliminates the resistance-breaking benefits of insecticide rotations. This increases the likelihood that not just one but two modes of action could be lost in a given area due to insecticide resistance. Importantly, through our resistance survey, we identified lambda-cyhalothrin resistance in a population can range from highly susceptible to very resistant. Areas with pyrethroid susceptibility could retain pyrethroids longer by incorporating other modes of action into a rotation, currently involving indoxacarb. In areas with low to moderate resistance, rotation is even more critical. Increased usage of indoxacarb could heighten selection pressure, although rotation could help preserve susceptibility. While resistant populations may take time to re-establish susceptibility to pyrethroids, some regions that have not used pyrethroids for a prolonged period may see a reversion to susceptibility. PCAs and growers frequently ask when they can return to pyrethroids after resistance develops; however, determining susceptibility to pyrethroids is not frequently done rigorously due to logistical constraints. Ensuring there are modes of action to rotate is critical, and pyrethroids can play a role if enough susceptibility exists.

Due to pyrethroid resistance, there is an urgent need for improved resistance management. Determining the scope of insecticide resistance (and susceptibility) is a crucial step to better target resistance management efforts. Our pyrethroid resistance survey provides a snapshot of resistance for lambda-cyhalothrin via lab assays. We conducted limited vial-based bioassays for indoxacarb. Importantly, for the several populations from Siskiyou County tested, susceptibility remained high and was virtually identical across the populations. In Merced County, susceptibility was slightly lower and more variable, potentially due to beginning shifts in susceptibility from multiple years of indoxacarb use. Any changes may not be evident to growers until efficacy drops significantly, as happened with pyrethroids.

Reducing selection pressure through fewer insecticide applications would aid resistance management. Agronomic practices that promote robust stands and vigorous crop growth can help mitigate damage. Additionally, reliance on economic thresholds and rigorous scouting can prevent unnecessary applications.

Proactive resistance management remains possible, and incorporating older but effective materials like pyrethroids when appropriate may promote long-term success in managing alfalfa weevils with insecticides.

The authors would like to thank the late Dr. Kevin Wanner (2024), who lead the associated project for this work on alfalfa and was a dedicated extension entomologist, scientist and mentor.

References
Rodbell, E. A., Hendrick, M. L., Grettenberger, I. M., & Wanner, K. W. (2022). Alfalfa weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin in the western United States. Journal of Economic Entomology, 115(6), 2029-2040.

Rodbell, E. A., Caron, C. G., Rondon, S. I., Masood, M. U., & Wanner, K. W. (2024). Alfalfa weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in the western United States are resistant to multiple type II pyrethroid insecticides. Journal of Economic Entomology, 117(1), 280-292.

Flowmeters Can Make Fertigation More Precise

By
Michael Cahn | UCCE Irrigation and Water Resources Advisor, Monterey County
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Figure 1. Nurse tanks are towed out to fields and used for injecting fertilizer into the irrigation blocks. Markings on the side of the tank are often used for determining the volume of fertilizer to inject (photo by M. Cahn.)

Growers will need to implement practices to protect groundwater from nitrate contamination to comply with the water quality regulations in California. Many growers now use drip irrigation to achieve higher efficiency with water and nitrogen fertilizer applications. Fertigating through drip systems allows nutrients to be applied more frequently than with tractor applications so rates can be adjusted to match the N uptake rate of the crop as well as place nutrients in the root zone.

The right amount of N fertilizer to apply to a crop will depend on the application interval and N uptake rate, which varies at different growth stages. Recently established vegetable crops uptake much less N than maturing crops. Also, crediting for nitrate in irrigation water, soil and tissue testing can further refine fertilizer recommendations.

Once the amount of N has been determined, irrigators must accurately inject the correct volume of fertilizer through the irrigation system. To accomplish this, they need the right equipment and training. Farming operations that produce vegetables and row crops often use fertigation trailers for transporting fertilizer to the field and injecting liquid fertilizer into an irrigation system. A fertigation trailer usually consists of a nurse tank with a capacity of 500 to 1,000 gallons and a small gas or electric pump (Fig. 1). Fertilizer is usually transferred from large storage tanks into the nurse tank using small gas-powered pumps (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Large tanks are typically used to store fertilizer on farms. Pumping equipment is used to transfer fertilizer to nurse tanks (photo by M. Cahn.)

Few fertigation trailers or large fertilizer tanks include a flowmeter to measure the volume of fertilizer transferred to a nurse tank or metered into the irrigation system. Irrigators often rely on markings on the side of the nurse tank to estimate the volume of fertilizer pumped (Fig. 1). These markings are usually not accurately calibrated nor have fine enough graduations to precisely meter out fertilizer. Furthermore, the markings can be hard to read, especially if the trailer is not positioned on a level surface.

A flowmeter could increase the accuracy of metering fertilizer into a nurse tank or for measuring the volume of fertilizer injected into the irrigation system. A flowmeter would also facilitate tracking the volume of fertilizer applied to each crop. Either an irrigator could manually record the readings, or the meter can be wired to a data logger or control system to automatically register volumes.

Accurately measuring fertilizer volume with a flowmeter can be challenging. Fertilizers can be corrosive to equipment and instrumentation, and they have a range of densities that can affect flow measurements. More than a decade ago, we tested several models of fertilizer flowmeters, which proved to be inaccurate. Since that time, many improvements have been made in flowmeter technology. Hence, it seemed worthwhile to test the accuracy and precision of a new generation of fertilizer flowmeters.

Evaluating Flowmeter Accuracy for Fertilizer Application
We evaluated three flowmeter models designed for metering liquid fertilizer:
• Banjo FM100 meter
• Dura-meter
• Blue White F-1000

Each model relies on a different mechanism to monitor fertilizer volume. The Banjo meter measures flow using a magnetic sensor, the Dura-meter uses a nutating disk and the Blue White meter (Fig. 3) uses a small propeller.

Figure 3. Three flowmeter models that use different mechanisms for measuring flow were evaluated for accuracy in measuring the volume of fertilizer pumped from a tank.

The accuracy of the flowmeters was tested using 25 gallons of either water, ammonium nitrate (AN20, 20% N), or urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN32, 32% N). These liquids have varying densities (water = 8.3 lbs/gal, AN20 = 10.5 lbs/gal, UAN32 = 11.1 lbs/gal). A testing manifold was set up in the UCCE greenhouse in Monterey County that pumped a calibrated volume of each fluid through the flowmeters using an electric diaphragm pump (Fig. 4). Five or more test runs were made for each meter and fluid. The average volume measured and the standard deviation from the mean volume were calculated.

Figure 4. Apparatus for testing the accuracy of fertilizer flowmeters (photo by M. Cahn.)

Comparing Flowmeter Performance and Cost Efficiency
All three flowmeter models accurately measured water and fertilizer volumes (Table 1). Measurement errors were generally less than ±2% of the true volume. The Dura-meter was the most accurate flowmeter of the three models and had an overall average absolute error of -0.2 gallons per 25 gallons measured and a coefficient of variation of ±0.3%. The Blue White meter, which uses a paddle wheel to measure volume, was the least accurate and had an overall absolute error of 1 gallon per 25 gallons measured and a coefficient of variation of ±1.3%. The type of liquid metered affected the accuracy of the Banjo and Blue White meters more than the Dura-meter.

Table 1. Accuracy of flowmeter measurements of water and two types of liquid fertilizers (AN20 and UAN32).

Although the Dura-meter was the most accurate of the three flowmeters, it did require an initial calibration before testing began. The other meters could not be manually calibrated. The nutating disk mechanism in the Dura-meter directly measures liquid volume, which may explain why the meter was not affected by the different densities of the liquids tested. Both the paddle wheel and the magnetic sensor mechanisms used in the Blue White and Banjo meters indirectly estimate flow rate.

Another advantage of the Dura-meter was that it was the cheapest of the three meters when tests were conducted. Another version of the Dura-meter can be used to turn off an injection pump when a specified volume of fertilizer has been injected. This version is available as part of the Auto Batch System (Dura-ABS™).

The Banjo meter is also available in a model (MFM100) that can output an electrical pulse proportional to flow rate so the volume of injected fertilizer can be recorded on a data logger or control system. It could also potentially be wired to cut off the injection pump when a desired volume of fertilizer is metered into the irrigation system.

Best Practices
Any of the tested flowmeters could help irrigators more accurately apply the intended volume of fertilizer to a crop as well as verify and maintain records of the applied fertilizer volumes. Depending on the preferences of the growing operation, it may be more efficient to install the meters on either the fertigation trailer or the main fertilizer tank.

If a fertigation trailer is used for injecting fertilizer at several fields during the day, installing the meter on the trailer would be a logical choice. However, if the nurse tank is filled for fertigating one block at a time, the flowmeter could be installed on the main fertilizer tank. Finally, the flowmeters tested are also helpful for monitoring tractor-sidedress applications of liquid fertilizers.

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